In these articles writer have moved from hierarchical structures to upsc models exam. These are based on both intra organizational networks among strategic units, divisions, groups, and so on; and inter organizational networks, such as industrial districts and general knowledge networks. Production is based on the coordination of a constellation of units, some of which are part of the organization (administration, R&D [research and development], etc.), and others refer to different companies (such as specialized outsourcing production, logistics, etc.). All these units might not totally be controlled by a unique subject, and might grow and differentiate their activities in an autonomous way, coexisting as in a bio functional system and creating unexpected combinations of processes and products. From a knowledge point of view, the need of sharing knowledge about upsc exam among units in a very complex organization, or among networked organizations, increases the importance of introducing new ICT technologies and effective KM systems. For a long time, KM systems and ICT technologies have been proposed and applied as neutral tools whose implementation within the firm does not have any impact on knowledge flows. In particular, for technical reasons, centralized systems (for instance, enterprise knowledge portals [EKPs]) have been developed with the aim of making general knowledge sharable and available in a general, objective, context-independent form, avoiding the persistence of noncurrent and no consistent information. Opposed to that point of view, studies focused on structuration theories do not consider technology as a neutral asset of organizations. According to these theories, there are strong relationships and interdependencies among human actions, institutional roles (the organizational model de facto), and the technology architecture of KM systems applied within the company. One of the most important results in this area is that ICT technologies and KM systems should be shaped on the processes, practices, and the organizational models in which they are implemented; otherwise, they are bound to failure. As a consequence, in a complex organization composed by a constellation of units that manage in an autonomous way specialized processes, ICT technologies and KM systems must take into account the distributed nature of general knowledge, and should allow coordination among autonomous units. In such a scenario, a KM system should satisfy two different needs: supporting the creation of specialized knowledge within a unit, and enabling the coordination of general knowledge (and activities through which knowledge is exchanged) among units. These dual needs reflect the tension between the necessity for both highly specialized organization of work and flexible intergroup cooperation within and outside the organizations. This is reflected in the duality between the need for highly articulated local perspectives that make up the communication and knowledge-creation tissue of each community, and the need for sharing cultures and instruments that allow communication across different units. The first aim of this article is to describe how, according to structuration theories, a centralized KM system can be replaced or supported by a distributed one, in which the fact of having multiple and specialized "local knowledge bodies" is viewed more as an opportunity to exploit than as a problem to solve. The second aim of this article is to present a specific approach to designing systems for managing knowledge distributed across different units, called distributed knowledge management (DKM), whose principles and main concepts will be introduced and explained in the second part of this article.
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